PHYSICS

Mechanics

1. Physical Quantities:

1.1 Measurement and units, 1.2. Dimensions and uses of dimensional analysis 1.3. Precision, and accuracy, significant figures, 1.4. Error analysis.

2. Vectors:

2.1. Triangle, parallelogram, and polygon laws of vectors, 2.2. Resolution of vectors; Unit vectors, 2.3. Scalar and vector products.

3. Kinematics:

3.1 Instantaneous velocity and acceleration, 3.2 Relative velocity, 3.3 Equation of motion (graphical treatment), 3.4 Motion of a freely falling body, 3.5 Projectile motion and its applications.

4. Dynamics:

4.1 Linear momentum, Impulse, 4.2 Conservation of linear momentum, 4.3 Application of Newton’s laws, 4.4 Moment, torque, and equilibrium, 4.5 Solid friction: Laws of solid friction and their verifications.

5. Work, energy, and power:

5.1 Work done by a constant force and a variable force, 5.2 Power, 5.3 Work-energy theorem; Kinetic and potential energy, 5.4 Conservation of Energy, 5.5 Conservative and non-conservative forces, 5.6 Elastic and inelastic collisions.

6.Circular Motion:

6.1 Angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration, 6.2 Relation between angular and linear velocity and acceleration, 6.3 Centripetal acceleration, 6.4 Centripetal force, 6.5 Conical pendulum, 6.6 Motion in a vertical circle, 6.7 Applications of banking.

7. Gravitation:

7.1 Newton’s law of gravitation, 7.2 Gravitational field strength, 7.3 Gravitational potential; Gravitational potential energy, 7.4 Variation in value of g due to altitude and depth, 7.5 Centre of mass and center of gravity, 7.6 Motion of a satellite: Orbital velocity and time period of the satellite, 7.7 Escape velocity 7.8 Potential and kinetic energy of the satellite, 7.9 Geostationary satellite, 7.10 GPS.

8. Elasticity:

8.1 Hooke’s law: Force constant, 8.2 Stress; Strain; Elasticity and plasticity, 8.3 Elastic modulus: Young modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, 8.4 Poisson’s ratio, 8.5 Elastic potential energy.

 Heat and Temperature:

9. Heat and Temperature:

9.1 Molecular concept of thermal energy, heat, and temperature, and cause and direction of heat flow, 9.2 Meaning of thermal equilibrium and Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 9.3 Thermal equilibrium as a working principle of a mercury thermometer.

10. Thermal Expansion:

10.1 Linear expansion and its measurement, 10.2 Cubical expansion, superficial expansion, and its relation with linear expansion, 10.3 Liquid Expansion: Absolute and apparent, 10.4 Dulong and Petit’s method of determining the expansivity of liquid.

11. Quantity of Heat:

11.1 Newton’s law of cooling, 11.2 Measurement of specific heat capacity of solids and liquids, 11.3 Change of phases: Latent heat, 11.4 Specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization, 11.5 Measurement of specific latent heat of fusion and vaporization, 11.6 Triple point.

12. Rate of heat flow:

12.1 Conduction: Thermal conductivity and measurement, 12.2 Convection, 12.3 Radiation: Ideal radiator, 12.4 Black-body radiation, 12.5 Stefan-Boltzmann law.

13. Ideal gas:

13.1 Ideal gas equation, 13.2 Molecular properties of matter, 13.3 Kinetic-molecular model of an ideal gas, 13.4 Derivation of pressure exerted by gas, 13.5 Average translational kinetic energy of a gas molecule, 13.6 Boltzmann constant, root mean square speed, 13.7 Heat capacities: gases and solids.

Wave and Optics:

14. Reflection at a curved mirror:

14.1 Real and Virtual images, 14.2 Mirror formula.

15. Refraction at plane surfaces:

15.1 Laws of refraction: Refractive index, 15.2 Relation between refractive indices, 15.3 Lateral shift, 15.4 Total internal reflection.

16. Refraction through prisms:

16.1 Minimum deviation condition, 16.2 Relation between Angle of a prism, minimum deviation, and refractive index, 16.3 Deviation in small angle prism.

17. Lenses:

17.1 Spherical lenses, angular magnification, 17.2 Lens maker’s formula, 17.3 Power of a lens.

18. Dispersion:

18.1 Pure spectrum and dispersive power, 18.2 Chromatic and spherical aberration, 18.3 Achromatism and its applications.

 Electricity & Magnetism:

19. Electric Charges:

19.1 Electric charges, 19.2 Charging by induction, 19.3 Coulomb’s law, Force between two-point charges, 19.4 Force between multiple electric charges.

20. Electric field:

20.1 Electric field due to point charges; Field lines, 20.2 Gauss Law: Electric Flux, 20.3 Application of Gauss law: Field of a charged sphere, linear charge, charged plane conductor.

21. Potential, potential difference, and potential energy:

21.1 Potential difference, Potential due to a point, Charge, potential energy, electron volt, 21.2 Equipotential lines and surfaces, 21.3 Potential gradient.

22. Capacitor:

22.1 Capacitance and capacitor, 22.2 Parallel plate capacitor, 22.3 Combination of capacitors, 22.4 Energy of charged capacitor, 22.5 Effect of a dielectric Polarization and displacement.

23. DC Circuits:

23.1 Electric Currents; Drift velocity and its relation with current, 23.2 Ohm’s law; Electrical Resistance; Resistivity; Conductivity, 23.3 Current-voltage relations; Ohmic and Non-Ohmic resistance, 23.4 Resistances in series and parallel, 23.5 Potential divider, 23.6 Electromotive force of a source, internal resistance, 23.7 Work and power in electrical circuits.

 Modern Physics

24. Nuclear physics:

24.1 Nucleus: Discovery of the nucleus, 24.2 Nuclear density; Mass number; Atomic number 24.3 Atomic mass; Isotopes, 24.4 Einstein’s mass-energy relation, 24.5 Mass Defect, packing fraction, BE per nucleon, 24.6 Creation and annihilation, 24.7 Nuclear fission and fusion, the energy released.

25. Solids:

25.1 Energy bands in solids (qualitative ideas), 25.2 Difference between metals, insulators, and semi-conductors using band theory, 25.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

26. Recent Trends in Physics:

26.1 Particle physics: Particles and antiparticles, Quarks (baryons and meson) and leptons (neutrinos), 26.2 Universe: Big Bang and Hubble law: expansion of the Universe, Dark matter, Black Hole and gravitational wave.

 

CHEMISTRY

General and Physical Chemistry

1. Foundation and Fundamentals:

1.1 General introductions of chemistry 1.2 Importance, and scope of chemistry 1.3 Basic concepts of chemistry (atoms, molecules, relative masses of atoms and molecules, atomic mass unit amu, radicals, molecular formula, empirical formula) 1.4 Percentage composition from molecular formula.

2. Stoichiometry:

2.1 Dalton’s atomic theory and its postulates 2.2 Laws of stoichiometry 2.3 Avogadro’s law and some deductions 2.3.1 Molecular mass and vapour density 2.3.2 Molecular mass and olume of gas 2.3.3 Molecular mass and no. of particles 2.4 Mole and its relation with mass, volume and number of particles 2.5 Calculations based on mole concept 2.6 Limiting reactant and excess reactant 2.7 Theoretical yield, experimental yield, and % yield 2.8 Calculation of empirical and molecular formula from % composition (Solving related numerical problems).

3. Atomic Structure:

3.1 Rutherford's atomic model 3.2 Limitations of Rutherford's atomic model 3.3 Postulates of Bohr’s atomic model and its application 3.4 Spectrum of hydrogen atom 3.5 Defects of Bohr’s theory 3.6 Elementary idea of quantum mechanical model: de Broglie's wave equation 3.7 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 3.8 Concept of probability 3.9 Quantum Numbers 3.10 Orbitals and shape of s and p orbitals only 3.11 Aufbau Principle 3.12 Pauli’s exclusion principle 3.13 Hund’s rule and electronic configurations of atoms and ions (up to atomic no. 30).

4. Classification of elements and Periodic Table:

4.1 Modern periodic law and modern periodic table 4.1.1 Classification of elements into different groups, periods and blocks 4.2 IUPAC classification of elements 4.3 Nuclear charge and effective nuclear charge 4.4 Periodic trends and periodicity 4.4.1 Atomic radii 4.4.2 Ionic radii 4.4.3 Ionization energy 4.4.4 Electron affinity 4.4.5 Electronegativity 4.4.6 Metallic characters (General trend and explanation only).

5. Chemical Bonding and Shapes of Molecules:

5.1 Valence shell, valence electron, and octet theory 5.2 Ionic bond and its properties 5.3 Covalent bond and coordinate covalent bond 5.4 Properties of covalent compounds 5.5 Lewis dot structure of some common compounds of s and p block elements 5.6 Resonance 5.7 VSEPR theory and shapes of some simple molecules (BeF2, BF3, CH4, CH3Cl, PCl5, SF6, H2O, NH3, CO2, H2S, PH3) 5.8 Elementary idea of Valence Bond Theory 5.9 Hybridization involving s and p orbitals only 5.10 Bond characteristics: 5.10.1 Bond length 5.10.2 Ionic character 5.10.3 Dipole moment 5.11 Vander Waal’s force and molecular solids 5.12 Hydrogen bonding and its application 5.13 Metallic bonding and properties of metallic solids.

6. Oxidation and Reduction:

6.1 General and electronic concept of oxidation and reduction 6.2 Oxidation number and rules for assigning oxidation number 6.3 Balancing redox reactions by oxidation number and ion-electron (half-reaction) method 6.4 Electrolysis 6.4.1 Qualitative aspect 6.4.2 Quantitative aspect (Faraday’s laws of electrolysis).

7. States of Matter:

7.1 Gaseous state 7.1.1 Kinetic theory of gas and its postulates 7.1.2 Gas laws 7.1.2.1 Boyle’s law and Charles' law 7.1.2.2 Avogadro's law 7.1.2.3 Combined gas equation 7.1.2.4 Dalton's law of partial pressure 7.1.2.5 Graham's law of diffusion 7.1.3 Ideal gas and ideal gas equation 7.1.4 Universal gas constant and its significance 7.1.5 Deviation of real gas from ideality (Solving related numerical problems based on gas laws) 7.2 Liquid state 7.2.1 Physical properties of liquids 7.2.1.1 Evaporation and condensation 7.2.1.2 Vapour pressure and boiling point 7.2.1.3 Surface tension and viscosity (qualitative idea only) 7.2.2 Liquid crystals and their applications 7.3 Solid state 7.3.1 Types of solids 7.3.2 Amorphous and crystalline solids 7.3.3 Efflorescent, Deliquescent and Hygroscopic solids 7.3.4 Crystallization and crystal growth 7.3.5 Water of crystallization 7.3.6 Introduction to unit crystal lattice and unit cell.

8. Chemical equilibrium:

8.1 Physical and chemical equilibrium 8.2 Dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium 8.3 Law of mass action 8.4 Expression for equilibrium constant and its importance 8.5 Relationship between Kp and Kc 8.6 Le Chatelier’s Principle (Numericals not required).

 Inorganic Chemistry

9. Chemistry of Non-metals:

9.1 Hydrogen 9.1.1 Chemistry of atomic and nascent hydrogen 9.1.2 Isotopes of hydrogen and their uses 9.1.3 Application of hydrogen as fuel 9.1.4 Heavy water and its applications 9.2 Allotropes of Oxygen 9.2.1 Definition of allotropy and examples 9.2.2 Oxygen: Types of oxides (acidic, basic, neutral, amphoteric, peroxide and mixed oxides) 9.2.3 Applications of hydrogen peroxide 9.2.4 Medical and industrial application of oxygen 9.3 Ozone 9.3.1 Occurrence 9.3.2 Preparation of ozone from oxygen 9.3.3 Structure of ozone 9.3.4 Test for ozone 9.3.5 Ozone layer depletion (causes, effects and control measures) 9.3.6 Uses of ozone 9.4 Nitrogen 9.4.1 Reason for inertness of nitrogen and active nitrogen 9.4.2 Chemical properties of ammonia [ Action with CuSO4 solution, water, FeCl3 solution, Conc. HCl, Mercurous nitrate paper, O2 ] 9.4.3 Applications of ammonia 9.4.4 Harmful effects of ammonia 9.4.5 Oxy-acids of nitrogen (name and formula) 9.4.6 Chemical properties of nitric acid [HNO3 as an acid and oxidizing agent (action with zinc, magnesium, iron, copper, sulphur, carbon, SO2 and H2S) 9.4.7 Ring test for nitrate ion 9.5 Halogens 9.5.1 General characteristics of halogens 9.5.2 Comparative study on preparation (no diagram and description is required), 9.5.2.1 Chemical properties [with water, alkali, ammonia, oxidizing character, bleaching action] and uses of halogens (Cl2, Br2 and I2) 9.5.3 Test for Cl2, Br2 and I2 9.5.4 Comparative study on preparation (no diagram and description is required), properties ( reducing strength, acidic nature and solubility) and uses of haloacids (HCl, HBr     and HI) 9.6 Carbon 9.6.1 Allotropes of carbon (crystalline and amorphous) including fullerenes (structure, general properties and uses only) 9.6.2 Properties (reducing action,  reaction with metals and nonmetals) and uses of carbon monoxide 9.7 Phosphorus 9.7.1 Allotropes of phosphorus (name only) 9.7.2 Preparation (no diagram and description is required), properties ( basic nature ,reducing nature , action with halogens and oxygen) and uses of phosphine 9.8 Sulphur 9.8.1 Allotropes of sulphur (name only) and uses of sulphur 9.8.2 Hydrogen sulphide (preparation from Kipp's apparatus with diagram,) properties (Acidic nature, reducing nature, analytical reagent) and uses 9.8.3 Sulphur dioxide its properties (acidic nature, reducing nature, oxidising nature and bleaching action) and uses 9.8.4 Sulphuric acid and its properties (acidic nature, oxidising nature, dehydrating nature) and uses 9.8.5 Sodium thiosulphate (formula and uses).

10. Chemistry of Metals:

10.1 Metals and Metallurgical Principles 10.1.1 Definition of metallurgy and its types (hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, electrometallurgy) 10.1.2 Introduction of ores 10.1.3 Gangue or matrix, flux and slag, alloy and amalgam 10.1.4 General principles of extraction of metals (different processes involved in metallurgy) –concentration, calcination and smelting, carbon reduction, thermite and electrochemical reduction 10.1.5 Refining of metals (poling and electro-refinement) 10.2 Alkali Metals 10.2.1 General characteristics of alkali metals 10.2.2 Sodium [extraction from Down's process, properties (action with Oxygen, water, acids nonmetals and ammonia) and uses] 10.2.3 Properties (precipitation reaction and action with carbon monooxide) and uses of sodium hydroxide 10.2.4 Properties (action with CO2, SO2, water, precipitation reactions) and uses of sodium carbonate 10.3 Alkaline Earth Metals 10.3.1 General characteristics of alkaline earth metals 10.3.2 Molecular formula and uses of (quick lime, bleaching powder, magnesia, plaster of paris and epsom salt) 10.3.3 Solubility of hydroxides, carbonates and sulphates of alkaline earth metals (general trend with explanation) 10.3.4 Stability of carbonate and nitrate of alkaline earth metals (general trend with explanation).

11. Bio-inorganic Chemistry:

Introduction to Bio-inorganic Chemistry 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Micro and macro nutrients 11.3 Importance of metal ions in biological systems (ions of Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Cr) 11.4 Ion pumps (sodium-potassium and sodium-glucose pump) 11.5 Metal toxicity (toxicity due to iron, arsenic, mercury, lead and cadmium).

Organic Chemistry

12. Basic Concept of Organic Chemistry:

12.1 Introduction to organic chemistry and organic compounds 12.2 Reasons for the separate study of organic compounds from inorganic compounds 12.3 Tetra-covalency and catenation properties of carbon 12.4 Classification of organic compounds 12.5 Alkyl groups, functional groups and homologous series 12.6 Idea of structural formula, contracted formula and bond line structural formula 12.7 Preliminary idea of cracking and reforming, quality of gasoline, octane number, cetane number, and gasoline additive.

13. Fundamental Principles of Organic Chemistry:

13.1 IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds (upto chain having 6- carbon atoms) 13.2 Qualitative analysis of organic compounds (detection of N, S and halogens by Lassaigne's test) 13.3 Isomerism in Organic Compounds 13.4 Definition and classification of isomerism 13.5 Structural isomerism and its types: chain isomerism, position isomerism, functional isomerism, metamerism and tautomerism 13.6 Concept of geometrical isomerism (cis & trans) & optical isomerism (d & l form) 13.7 Preliminary Idea of Reaction Mechanism 13.7.1 Homolytic and heterolytic fission 13.7.2 Electrophiles, nucleophiles and free- radicals 13.7.3 Inductive effect: +I and –I effect 13.7.4 Resonance effect: +R and –R effect.

14. Hydrocarbons:

14.1 Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

14.1.1 Alkanes: Preparation from haloalkanes (Reduction and Wurtz reaction), Decarboxylation, Catalytic hydrogenation of alkene and alkyne, 14.1.2 Chemical properties: Substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration & sulphonation only), oxidation of ethane.

14.2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons (Alkenes & Alkynes)

14.2.1 Alkenes: Preparation by Dehydration of alcohol, Dehydrohalogenation, Catalytic hydrogenation of alkyne; 14.2.1.1 Chemical properties: Addition reaction with HX (Markovnikov’s addition and peroxide effect), H2O, O3, H2SO4 only.

14.3 Alkynes: Preparation from carbon and hydrogen, 1,2 dibromoethane, chloroform/iodoform only; 14.3.1 Chemical properties: Addition reaction with (H2, HX, H2O), Acidic nature (action with Sodium, ammoniacal AgNO3 and ammoniacal Cu2Cl2).

14.4 Test of unsaturation (ethene & ethyne): bromine water test and Baeyer's test.

14.5 Comparative studies of physical properties of alkane, alkene and alkyne.

14.6 Kolbe's electrolysis methods for the preparation of alkane, alkene and alkynes.

15. Aromatic Hydrocarbons:

15.1 Introduction and characteristics of aromatic compounds, 15.2 Huckel's rule of aromaticity, 15.3 Kekule structure of benzene, 15.4 Resonance and isomerism, 15.5 Preparation of benzene from decarboxylation of sodium benzoate, phenol, and ethyne only, 15.6 Physical properties of benzene, 15.7 Chemical properties of benzene: Addition reaction: hydrogen, halogen, Electrophilic substitution reactions: orientation of benzene derivatives (o, m & p), nitration, sulphonation, halogenations, Friedal-Craft's reaction (alkylation and acylation), combustion of benzene ( free combustion only) and uses.

Applied Chemistry

16. Fundamentals of Applied Chemistry:

16.1 Fundamentals of Applied Chemistry 16.1.2 Chemical industry and its importance 16.1.3 Stages in producing a new product 16.1.4 Economics of production 16.1.5 Cash flow in the production cycle 16.1.6 Running a chemical plant 16.1.7 Designing a chemical plant 16.1.7 Continuous and batch processing 16.1.8 Environmental impact of the chemical industry.

17. Modern Chemical Manufactures:

17.1 Modern Chemical Manufactures (principle and flow sheet diagram only) 17.1.1 Manufacture of ammonia by Haber's process, 17.1.2 Manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald's process, 17.1.3 Manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process, 17.1.4 Manufacture of sodium hydroxide by Diaphragm Cell 17.1.5 Manufacture of sodium carbonate by ammonia soda or Solvay process 17.2 Fertilizers (Chemical fertilizers, types of chemical fertilizers, production of urea with flow-sheet diagram).

 

MATHMATICS

 1. Algebra:

1.1 Logic and Set: Statements, logical connectives, truth tables, theorems based on set operations. 1.2 Real numbers: Geometric representation of real numbers, interval, absolute value. 1.3 Function: Domain and range of a function, Inverse function, composite function, introduction of functions; algebraic (linear, quadratic & cubic), Transcendental (trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic) 1.4 Curve sketching: Odd and even functions, periodicity of a function, symmetry (about origin, X-and Y-axis), monotonicity of a function, sketching the graphs of Quadratic, Cubic and rational functions of the form 1 ax + b where a ≠ 0, Trigonometric (asinbx and acosbx), exponential (ex ), logarithmic function (lnx) 1.5 Sequence and series: Arithmetic, geometric, harmonic sequences and series and their properties A.M, G.M, H.M and their relations, sum of infinite geometric series 1.6 Matrices and determinants: Transpose of a matrix and its properties, Minors and cofactors, Adjoint, Inverse matrix, Determinant, Properties of determinants (without proof) 1.7 Quadratic equation: Nature and roots of a quadratic equation, Relation between roots and coefficient. Formation of a quadratic equation, Symmetric roots, one or both roots common. 1.8 Complex number: Imaginary unit, algebra of complex numbers, geometric representation, absolute (Modulus) value and conjugate of a complex numbers and their properties, square root of a complex number.

2. Trigonometry:

2.1 Inverse circular functions. 2.2 Trigonometric equations and general values.

3. Analytic Geometry:

3.1 Straight Line: Length of perpendicular from a given point to a given line, Bisectors of the angles between two straight lines. 3.2 Pair of straight lines: General equation of second degree in x and y, condition for representing a pair of lines, Homogenous second-degree equation in x and y, angle between pair of lines, Bisectors of the angles between pair of lines 3.3 Coordinates in space: Points in space, distance between two points, direction cosines and ratios of a line.

4. Vectors:

4.1 Vectors: Collinear and noncollinear vectors, coplanar and non-coplanar vectors, linear combination of vectors, Linearly dependent and independent.

5. Statistics and Probability:

5.1 Measure of Dispersion: Standard deviation, variance, coefficient of variation, Skewness, Karl Pearson's coefficient of skewness 5.2 Probability: Independent cases, mathematical and empirical definition of probability, two basic laws of probability (without proof).

6. Calculus:

6.1 Limits and continuity: Limits of a function, indeterminate forms. algebraic properties of limits (without proof), Basic theorems on limits of algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions, continuity of a function, types of discontinuity, graphs of discontinuous function. 6.2 Derivatives: Derivative of a function, derivatives of algebraic, trigonometric, inverse of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions by definition (simple forms), rules of differentiation. derivatives of parametric and implicit functions, higher order derivatives, geometric interpretation of derivative, monotonicity of a function, interval of monotonicity, extreme values of a function, concavity, points of inflection. 6.3 Anti-derivatives: Integration using basic integrals, integration by substitution and by parts methods, the definite integral, the definite integral as an area under the given curve, area between two curves.

7. Computational Methods:

7.1 Numerical computation: Roots of algebraic and transcendental equation (bisection and NewtonRaphson method) 7.2 Numerical integration: Trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule Or, Mechanics 7.1 Statics: Forces and resultant forces, parallelogram law of forces, composition and resolution of forces, Resultant of coplanar forces acting on a point. 7.2 Dynamics: Motion of particle in a straight line, Motion with uniform acceleration, motion under the gravity, motion down a smooth inclined plane.

 

 BIOLOGY

Part A: Botany

1. Biomolecules & Cell Biology:

1.1 Biomolecules: Introduction and functions of: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, minerals, enzymes and water. 1.2 Cell: Introduction of cell, concepts of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, detail structure of eukaryotic cells (composition, structure and functions of cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes, ribosomes, nucleus, chromosomes, cilia, flagella and cell inclusions. 1.3 Cell division: Concept of cell cycle, types of cell division (amitosis, mitosis and meiosis) and significances.

2. Floral Diversity:

2.1 Introduction: Three domains of life, binomial nomenclature, five kingdom classification system (Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia); status of flora in Nepal and world representation 2.2 Fungi: General introduction and characteristic features of phycomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and deuteromycetes; structure and Reproduction of Mucor and Yeast, introduction of Mushrooms, poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms, economic importance of fungi. 2.3 Lichen: General introduction, characteristic features and economic importance of lichen 2.4 Algae: General introduction and characteristic feature of green, brown and red algae; structure and reproduction of Spirogyra. Economic importance of algae 2.5 Bryophyta: General introduction and characteristic features of liverworts, hornworts and moss; morphological structure and reproduction of Marchantia. Economic importance of bryophytes 2.6 Pteridophyta: General introduction and characteristic features of pteridophytes; morphological structure and reproduction of Dryopteris. Economic importance of pteridophytes 2.7 Gymnosperm: General introduction and characteristic features of Gymnosperms; morphology and reproduction of Pinus. Economic importance of gymnosperm 2.8 Angiosperm: Morphology (root, stem, leaves, inflorescences, flowers and fruit); Taxonomic study: Definition, taxonomic hierarchy, classification systems (artificial, natural and phylogenetic) of angiosperms, taxonomic description of the families – Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Liliaceae with economic importance.

3. Introductory Microbiology:

3.1 Monera: General introduction, structure of bacterial cell, mode of nutrition, bacterial growth; cyanobacteria (blue green algae). 3.2 Virus: General introduction, structure and importance of virus, bacteriophage 3.3 Impacts of biotechnology in the field of microbiology.

4. Ecology:

4.1 Ecosystem ecology: Concept of ecology, biotic and abiotic factors, species interactions; concept of ecosystem, structural and functional aspects of pond and forest ecosystem, food chain, food web, trophic level, ecological pyramids, productivity, biogeochemical cycle - carbon and nitrogen cycles, concept of succession. 4.2 Ecological Adaptation: Concept of adaptation, hydrophytes and xerophytes. 4.3 Ecological Imbalances: Greenhouse effects and climate change, depletion of ozone layer, acid rain and biological invasion.

5. Vegetation:

Vegetation: Introduction, types of vegetation in Nepal, concept of In-situ (protected areas) and Ex-situ (botanical garden, seed bank) conservation. Natural environment-vegetation and human activities.

Part B: Zoology

6. Introduction to Biology:

6.1 Introduction to Biology: Scope and fields of biology. Relation with other science.

7. Evolutionary Biology:

7.1 Life and its Origin: Oparin-Haldane theory, Miller and Urey's experiment. 7.2 Evidences of evolution: Morphological, Anatomical, Paleontological, Embryological and Biochemical. 7.3 Theories of evolution: Lamarckism, Darwinism & concept of Neo Darwinism. 7.4 Human evolution: Position of man in animal kingdom. Differences between new world monkeys & old-world monkeys, apes & man. Evolution of modern man starting from anthropoid ancestor.

8. Faunal Diversity:

8.1 Protista: Outline classification. Protozoa: diagnostic features and classification up to class with examples; Paramecium caudatum, Plasmodium vivax - habits and habitat, structure, reproduction, life-cycle and economic importance of P. falciparum. 8.2 Animalia: Level of organization, body plan, body symmetry, body cavity and segmentation in animals. Diagnostic features and classification of the following phyla (up to class) with examples:Porifera, Coelenterata (Cnidaria), Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes (Nemathelminthes), Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Chordata. Earthworm (Pheretima posthuma): Habit and habitat, External features; Digestive system (alimentary canal & physiology of digestion), Excretory system (types of nephridia, structure and arrangement of septal nephridia), Nervous system (central & peripheral nervous system, working mechanism) & Reproductive systems (male & female reproductive organs), Copulation, Cocoon formation and Economic importance. Frog (Rana tigrina): Habit and habitat, External features, Digestive system (alimentary canal, digestive glands & physiology of digestion), Blood vascular system (structure & working mechanism of heart), Respiratory system (respiratory organs & physiology of respiration) and Reproductive system (male & female reproductive organs).

9. Biota and Environment:

9.1 Animal adaptation: Aquatic (Primary & Secondary), Terrestrial (Cursorial, Fossorial & Arboreal) and Volant adaptation. 9.2 Animal behavior: Reflex action, taxes, dominance and leadership. Fish and bird Migration. 9.3 Environmental Pollution: Sources, effects and control measures of air, water and soil pollution. Pesticides & their effects.

10. Conservation Biology:

10.1 Conservation Biology: Concept of biodiversity, biodiversity conservation, national parks, wildlife reserves, conservation areas, biodiversity hotspots, wetland & Ramsar sites. Wildlife-Importance, causes of extinction and conservation strategies. IUCN categories of threatened species- meaning of extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, and threatened species. Endangered species in Nepal.